Key Insights
The Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market is experiencing robust growth, projected to reach a substantial size and maintain a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 10.46% from 2025 to 2033. This expansion is fueled by several key factors. The burgeoning e-commerce sector across the region is driving the demand for efficient and automated warehousing solutions. Increasing labor costs and a growing need to optimize warehouse operations are also contributing to the market's upward trajectory. Furthermore, technological advancements in robotics, leading to more sophisticated and cost-effective solutions, are accelerating adoption. The market is segmented by end-user industry (food and beverage, automotive, retail, electronics, pharmaceuticals, and others), geographic location (Saudi Arabia, South Africa, UAE, and the rest of the Middle East and Africa), and functional application (storage, packaging, trans-shipment, and other functions). While the market shows significant promise, challenges remain. These include the initial high capital investment required for robotic systems and the need for skilled labor to operate and maintain these technologies. However, the long-term benefits of increased efficiency, reduced operational costs, and improved accuracy are expected to outweigh these initial hurdles, driving sustained market growth.
The competitive landscape is populated by a mix of established international players and regional companies. Key players such as Yaskawa Electric Corporation, Fanuc Corporation, Honeywell International, and others are actively investing in the region, capitalizing on the growth opportunities. The success of these companies depends on their ability to offer customized solutions tailored to the specific needs of various industries and adapt to the unique market conditions within each country. Future growth is anticipated to be particularly strong in countries with rapidly expanding economies and substantial investments in infrastructure development within the logistics sector. This combination of factors positions the Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market for continued significant growth throughout the forecast period.

Middle East & Africa Warehouse Robotics Market: A Comprehensive Report (2019-2033)
This comprehensive report provides an in-depth analysis of the Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market, covering the period from 2019 to 2033. It offers invaluable insights for industry professionals, investors, and strategists seeking to understand the market dynamics, growth trends, and future opportunities within this rapidly evolving sector. The report segments the market by end-user (Food and Beverage, Automotive, Retail, Electrical and Electronics, Pharmaceutical, Other End Users), country (Saudi Arabia, South Africa, United Arab Emirates, Rest of Middle East and Africa), and function (Storage, Packaging, Trans-shipments, Other Functions). The market is valued in million units.
Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Dynamics & Structure
This section analyzes the market's competitive landscape, technological advancements, regulatory influences, and market trends. The study period is 2019-2033, with 2025 as the base and estimated year. The forecast period spans 2025-2033, and the historical period covers 2019-2024. The report explores the level of market concentration, identifying key players and their market shares. It examines the impact of technological innovations, such as AI-powered robotics and autonomous mobile robots (AMRs), on market growth. Regulatory frameworks and their influence on market expansion are also assessed. Furthermore, the report analyzes the competitive landscape through the lens of substitute products and the impact of mergers and acquisitions (M&A) activities.
- Market Concentration: The MEA warehouse robotics market exhibits a moderately concentrated structure, with the top 5 players holding approximately xx% of the market share in 2024.
- Technological Innovation: The adoption of advanced technologies like AI, machine learning, and computer vision is driving market growth. Innovation barriers include high initial investment costs and a lack of skilled workforce.
- Regulatory Framework: Government initiatives promoting automation and Industry 4.0 are positively impacting market expansion. However, data privacy regulations pose challenges.
- M&A Activity: The number of M&A deals in the MEA warehouse robotics market increased by xx% from 2020 to 2024, indicating increasing consolidation.
Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Growth Trends & Insights
This section delivers a comprehensive analysis of market size evolution, adoption rates, technological disruptions, and shifting consumer behavior. Utilizing various analytical methodologies, the report projects a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of xx% during the forecast period (2025-2033). Market penetration is expected to reach xx% by 2033, driven by factors such as increasing e-commerce penetration, labor shortages, and the need for improved supply chain efficiency. The report also examines the impact of technological disruptions, such as the rise of collaborative robots (cobots) and the integration of warehouse management systems (WMS), on market growth. Changes in consumer behavior, such as a preference for faster delivery times and increased demand for personalized services, are also analyzed. The analysis will include specific metrics showing market size evolution in million units for each year from 2019 to 2033.

Dominant Regions, Countries, or Segments in Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market
This section identifies the leading regions, countries, and segments driving market growth. The analysis will pinpoint the dominant end-user segments (e.g., e-commerce, food and beverage), countries (e.g., Saudi Arabia, UAE), and functionalities (e.g., picking and packing) within the MEA warehouse robotics market. The analysis will cover factors driving this dominance, including:
- Saudi Arabia: Strong government support for Industry 4.0 initiatives and significant investments in logistics infrastructure are driving market growth.
- UAE: High adoption of e-commerce and a thriving logistics sector fuel the demand for warehouse automation solutions.
- South Africa: Growing industrialization and a focus on improving supply chain efficiency are contributing to market expansion.
- Food & Beverage Sector: The food and beverage industry's emphasis on improving hygiene standards and reducing operational costs is driving the adoption of robotics.
- E-commerce: The rapid growth of e-commerce across the region necessitates efficient warehouse operations, fueling demand for robotics.
Market share and growth potential will be quantified for each dominant region, country, and segment.
Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Product Landscape
The MEA warehouse robotics market offers a diverse range of products, including Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs), Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs), robotic arms, and warehouse management systems (WMS). These solutions offer enhanced speed, accuracy, and efficiency in material handling, order fulfillment, and inventory management. Technological advancements focus on improving the robots' autonomy, intelligence, and collaborative capabilities. Unique selling propositions include improved throughput, reduced labor costs, enhanced safety, and greater scalability.
Key Drivers, Barriers & Challenges in Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market
Key Drivers:
- Rising e-commerce penetration is creating a high demand for efficient warehouse solutions.
- Labor shortages in several MEA countries drive the need for automation.
- Government initiatives promoting industrial automation accelerate market growth.
Key Challenges:
- High initial investment costs can hinder adoption, especially for SMEs.
- Lack of skilled labor for operation and maintenance is a significant hurdle.
- Concerns regarding data security and privacy related to robotic systems can slow down implementation. Estimated xx million units of potential market were lost due to these concerns in 2024.
Emerging Opportunities in Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market
Emerging opportunities include the expansion into untapped markets within the MEA region, particularly in smaller and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The development and deployment of more sophisticated and affordable robotic solutions, coupled with the growth of cloud-based warehouse management systems, will also unlock significant market opportunities. Further opportunities lie in the integration of robotics with other technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT) and AI to improve efficiency and optimize warehouse operations.
Growth Accelerators in the Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Industry
Long-term growth will be propelled by technological advancements, strategic partnerships between robotics companies and logistics providers, and government support for Industry 4.0 initiatives. The development of more adaptable and user-friendly robotic systems will lower the barrier to entry for smaller businesses. The expansion of e-commerce, along with the increasing focus on supply chain resilience, will further fuel market expansion in the coming years.
Key Players Shaping the Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Market
- Yaskawa Electric Corporation (Yaskawa Motoman)
- Fanuc Corporation
- Honeywell International Inc
- Singapore Technologies Engineering Ltd (Aethon Incorporation)
- Grey Orange Pte Ltd
- Syrius Robotic
- Toshiba Corporation
- ABB Limited
- Kuka AG
Notable Milestones in Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Sector
- Jan 2022: Grey Orange launched a new AMR solution optimized for MEA warehouse environments.
- Oct 2023: ABB announced a strategic partnership with a major logistics provider in Saudi Arabia.
- Mar 2024: Yaskawa Motoman opened a new robotics service center in the UAE.
In-Depth Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Market Outlook
The MEA warehouse robotics market exhibits strong growth potential, driven by continuous technological advancements, increasing automation needs within various industries, and supportive government policies. The market is poised for significant expansion in the coming years, presenting strategic opportunities for both established players and new entrants. The focus on enhancing efficiency, reducing operational costs, and improving supply chain resilience will further propel market growth.
Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Segmentation
-
1. Type
- 1.1. Industrial Robots
- 1.2. Sortation Systems
- 1.3. Conveyors
- 1.4. Palletizers
- 1.5. Automated Storage and Retrieval System (ASRS)
- 1.6. Mobile Robots (AGVs and AMRs)
-
2. Function
- 2.1. Storage
- 2.2. Packaging
- 2.3. Trans shipments
- 2.4. Other Functions
-
3. End User
- 3.1. Food and Beverage
- 3.2. Automotive
- 3.3. Retail
- 3.4. Electrical and Electronics
- 3.5. Pharmaceutical
- 3.6. Other End Users
Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Segmentation By Geography
-
1. Middle East
- 1.1. Saudi Arabia
- 1.2. United Arab Emirates
- 1.3. Israel
- 1.4. Qatar
- 1.5. Kuwait
- 1.6. Oman
- 1.7. Bahrain
- 1.8. Jordan
- 1.9. Lebanon

Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
Aspects | Details |
---|---|
Study Period | 2019-2033 |
Base Year | 2024 |
Estimated Year | 2025 |
Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
Growth Rate | CAGR of 10.46% from 2019-2033 |
Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1. ; Increasing Investments in Technology and Robotics
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. ; Initiative of Zero Routine Flaring by 2030
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. Sortation Systems to Drive the Market Growth
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 5.1.1. Industrial Robots
- 5.1.2. Sortation Systems
- 5.1.3. Conveyors
- 5.1.4. Palletizers
- 5.1.5. Automated Storage and Retrieval System (ASRS)
- 5.1.6. Mobile Robots (AGVs and AMRs)
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Function
- 5.2.1. Storage
- 5.2.2. Packaging
- 5.2.3. Trans shipments
- 5.2.4. Other Functions
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End User
- 5.3.1. Food and Beverage
- 5.3.2. Automotive
- 5.3.3. Retail
- 5.3.4. Electrical and Electronics
- 5.3.5. Pharmaceutical
- 5.3.6. Other End Users
- 5.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.4.1. Middle East
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Type
- 6. Africa Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 6.1.1. undefined
- 7. South Africa Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 7.1.1. undefined
- 8. Sudan Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 8.1.1. undefined
- 9. Uganda Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 9.1.1. undefined
- 10. Tanzania Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 10.1.1. undefined
- 11. Kenya Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 11.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 11.1.1. undefined
- 12. Competitive Analysis
- 12.1. Market Share Analysis 2024
- 12.2. Company Profiles
- 12.2.1 Yaskawa Electric Corporation (Yaskawa Motoman)
- 12.2.1.1. Overview
- 12.2.1.2. Products
- 12.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.2 Fanuc Corporation
- 12.2.2.1. Overview
- 12.2.2.2. Products
- 12.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.3 Honeywell International Inc
- 12.2.3.1. Overview
- 12.2.3.2. Products
- 12.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.4 Singapore Technologies Engineering Ltd (Aethon Incorporation)
- 12.2.4.1. Overview
- 12.2.4.2. Products
- 12.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.5 Grey Orange Pte Ltd
- 12.2.5.1. Overview
- 12.2.5.2. Products
- 12.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.6 Syrius Robotic
- 12.2.6.1. Overview
- 12.2.6.2. Products
- 12.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.7 Toshiba Corporation
- 12.2.7.1. Overview
- 12.2.7.2. Products
- 12.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.8 ABB Limited
- 12.2.8.1. Overview
- 12.2.8.2. Products
- 12.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.9 Kuka AG
- 12.2.9.1. Overview
- 12.2.9.2. Products
- 12.2.9.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.9.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.9.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.1 Yaskawa Electric Corporation (Yaskawa Motoman)
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Share (%) by Company 2024
List of Tables
- Table 1: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Function 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Function 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End User 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by End User 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 17: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 18: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 19: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 20: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 21: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 22: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 23: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 24: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Type 2019 & 2032
- Table 25: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Function 2019 & 2032
- Table 26: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Function 2019 & 2032
- Table 27: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End User 2019 & 2032
- Table 28: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by End User 2019 & 2032
- Table 29: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 30: Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume K Unit Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 31: Saudi Arabia Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 32: Saudi Arabia Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 33: United Arab Emirates Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 34: United Arab Emirates Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 35: Israel Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 36: Israel Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 37: Qatar Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 38: Qatar Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 39: Kuwait Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 40: Kuwait Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 41: Oman Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 42: Oman Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 43: Bahrain Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 44: Bahrain Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 45: Jordan Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 46: Jordan Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 47: Lebanon Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 48: Lebanon Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market Volume (K Unit) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately 10.46%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market?
Key companies in the market include Yaskawa Electric Corporation (Yaskawa Motoman), Fanuc Corporation, Honeywell International Inc, Singapore Technologies Engineering Ltd (Aethon Incorporation), Grey Orange Pte Ltd, Syrius Robotic, Toshiba Corporation, ABB Limited, Kuka AG.
3. What are the main segments of the Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market?
The market segments include Type, Function, End User.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD XX Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
; Increasing Investments in Technology and Robotics.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
Sortation Systems to Drive the Market Growth.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
; Initiative of Zero Routine Flaring by 2030.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
N/A
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 4750, USD 4950, and USD 6800 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million and volume, measured in K Unit.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the Middle East and Africa Warehouse Robotics Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence