Key Insights
The European Gas Insulated Switchgear (GIS) market, valued at €4.19 billion in 2025, is projected to experience robust growth, driven by the increasing demand for reliable and efficient power transmission and distribution infrastructure across the region. A Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 7.62% is anticipated from 2025 to 2033, indicating a significant expansion of the market. This growth is fueled by several key factors. The rising adoption of renewable energy sources, particularly in countries like Germany and the UK, necessitates upgraded grid infrastructure capable of handling fluctuating power supplies, boosting the demand for GIS solutions. Furthermore, the ongoing modernization and expansion of existing power grids across Europe, driven by increasing urbanization and industrialization, create a significant market opportunity. Stringent safety regulations and the need to minimize environmental impact further contribute to the preference for GIS technology over air-insulated switchgear. The market is segmented by voltage level (low, medium, and high voltage), end-user (commercial & residential, power utilities, and industrial), and geography, with Germany, France, and the UK representing major markets. Competitive landscape analysis reveals key players like Hitachi ABB, Toshiba, Mitsubishi Electric, Schneider Electric, Eaton, Siemens Energy, and Nuventura actively participating in this expanding market.
The segmental breakdown shows a strong demand for medium and high voltage GIS, primarily from the power utilities and industrial sectors. While the commercial and residential segments contribute, their growth is comparatively slower. Regional variations in market growth are expected, with countries experiencing rapid economic growth and significant infrastructure development projects likely to show faster adoption rates. Despite the positive outlook, potential market restraints include high initial investment costs associated with GIS installation and the need for specialized expertise in maintenance and operation. However, the long-term benefits of increased reliability, reduced maintenance needs, and improved safety are expected to outweigh these challenges, continuing to propel market growth throughout the forecast period. The continued focus on grid modernization and renewable energy integration will solidify GIS's role as a crucial component of the European power infrastructure.

Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market: A Comprehensive Report (2019-2033)
This comprehensive report provides an in-depth analysis of the Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear (GIS) market, encompassing market dynamics, growth trends, regional dominance, product landscape, key players, and future outlook. The report covers the period from 2019 to 2033, with 2025 serving as the base year. The analysis segments the market by voltage level (low, medium, high), end-user (commercial & residential, power utilities, industrial sector), and key European countries (Germany, France, United Kingdom, Spain, Italy, NORDIC, Turkey, Russia, and Rest of Europe). The report is essential for industry professionals, investors, and strategists seeking a detailed understanding of this vital sector of the energy infrastructure market.
Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Dynamics & Structure
The European Gas Insulated Switchgear market is characterized by moderate concentration, with key players like Hitachi ABB Ltd, Toshiba Corp, Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, Schneider Electric SE, Eaton Corporation PLC, Siemens Energy AG, Nuventura GmbH, and General Electric Company vying for market share. Technological innovation, particularly in SF6-free alternatives, is a major driver, alongside stringent environmental regulations pushing for reduced greenhouse gas emissions. The market faces competitive pressure from alternative switching technologies, while mergers and acquisitions (M&A) activity remains relatively consistent, though deal volumes have fluctuated in recent years.
- Market Concentration: Moderately concentrated, with the top 5 players holding approximately xx% of the market share in 2024.
- Technological Innovation: Strong focus on SF6-free gas alternatives and digitalization of switchgear systems. Innovation barriers include high R&D costs and regulatory approval processes.
- Regulatory Framework: Stringent environmental regulations in several European countries drive adoption of eco-friendly GIS solutions.
- Competitive Substitutes: Air-insulated switchgear and other switching technologies present competitive challenges.
- M&A Trends: Consistent M&A activity, with xx major deals recorded between 2019 and 2024, driven by strategic expansion and technological acquisition.
- End-User Demographics: Power utilities dominate the market, followed by the industrial sector and commercial & residential segments.
Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Growth Trends & Insights
The European GIS market experienced a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of xx% between 2019 and 2024. Market size in 2024 is estimated at xx million units. Driven by increased electricity demand, grid modernization initiatives, and the expansion of renewable energy sources, the market is poised for continued growth. Technological disruptions, such as the adoption of SF6-free gas and digital technologies, are significantly impacting market dynamics. Consumer behavior is shifting towards energy-efficient and environmentally responsible solutions, favoring the adoption of sustainable GIS technologies. The forecast period (2025-2033) projects a CAGR of xx%, reaching a market size of xx million units by 2033. Market penetration of SF6-free GIS is expected to increase from xx% in 2024 to xx% by 2033.

Dominant Regions, Countries, or Segments in Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market
Germany, followed by France and the UK, are the leading countries in the European GIS market, driven by robust industrial sectors and well-established power grids. The high-voltage segment holds the largest market share, followed by medium voltage, reflecting the growing demand for efficient transmission and distribution infrastructure. Power utilities represent the largest end-user segment due to their significant investments in grid infrastructure upgrades. The NORDIC region shows promising growth potential due to increasing investments in renewable energy integration.
- Key Drivers: Stringent environmental regulations, expansion of renewable energy sources, modernization of existing power grids, and robust industrial activity.
- Germany: Largest market share driven by a strong manufacturing base and high electricity demand.
- France & UK: Significant market size driven by ongoing grid modernization projects.
- High Voltage Segment: Dominant market share due to the crucial role of high-voltage GIS in long-distance power transmission.
- Power Utilities: Largest end-user segment due to substantial investments in grid infrastructure.
Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Product Landscape
The European GIS market offers a diverse range of products, encompassing various voltage levels, gas types (including SF6 and SF6-free alternatives), and functionalities. Recent innovations focus on improved safety features, enhanced reliability, reduced environmental impact, and digital capabilities for remote monitoring and control. Key selling propositions include enhanced efficiency, improved safety features, eco-friendly designs, and advanced monitoring capabilities.
Key Drivers, Barriers & Challenges in Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market
Key Drivers: Increasing demand for reliable and efficient power transmission and distribution, stringent environmental regulations promoting SF6-free alternatives, and ongoing grid modernization projects across Europe are key drivers. The growth of renewable energy sources necessitates enhanced grid infrastructure, further fueling demand.
Challenges: High initial investment costs for GIS, potential supply chain disruptions impacting component availability, and intense competition among established players are key challenges. Regulatory hurdles and complex approval processes for new technologies can also hinder market growth.
Emerging Opportunities in Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market
The rising adoption of smart grids, the increasing integration of renewable energy sources, and the demand for improved grid resilience present significant growth opportunities. The development and deployment of innovative SF6-free GIS technologies will shape future market trends. Expanding into untapped markets in Eastern Europe offers additional potential.
Growth Accelerators in the Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Industry
Strategic partnerships and collaborations between GIS manufacturers and grid operators are accelerating market growth. Technological breakthroughs in SF6-free gas and digitalization are driving innovation and efficiency gains. Market expansion strategies targeting emerging markets and renewable energy sectors are creating significant growth opportunities.
Key Players Shaping the Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Market
- Hitachi ABB Ltd
- Toshiba Corp
- Mitsubishi Electric Corporation
- Schneider Electric SE
- Eaton Corporation PLC
- Siemens Energy AG
- Nuventura GmbH
- General Electric Company
Notable Milestones in Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Sector
- October 2023: Nuventura and Iberapa announce a strategic partnership to integrate SF6-free MV GIS into Iberapa's substation offerings, accelerating the adoption of sustainable GIS technologies in Spain.
- March 2023: Siemens Energy invests USD 32.5 million in expanding its medium-voltage switchgear manufacturing plant in Germany, signifying a strong commitment to meeting growing market demand.
In-Depth Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Market Outlook
The European GIS market is poised for robust growth, driven by continuous grid modernization, the rise of renewable energy, and the increasing focus on sustainability. Strategic investments in R&D, innovative product development, and expansion into new markets will shape the future of this dynamic sector. The market's long-term potential is significant, offering substantial opportunities for established players and new entrants alike.
Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Segmentation
-
1. Voltage Level
- 1.1. Low Voltage
- 1.2. Medium Voltage
- 1.3. High Voltage
-
2. End-User
- 2.1. Commercial & Residential
- 2.2. Power utilities
- 2.3. Industrial sector
-
3. Countries
- 3.1. Germany
- 3.2. France
- 3.3. United Kingdom
- 3.4. Spain
- 3.5. Italy
- 3.6. NORDIC
- 3.7. Turkery
- 3.8. Russia
- 3.9. Rest of Europe
Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Segmentation By Geography
-
1. Europe
- 1.1. United Kingdom
- 1.2. Germany
- 1.3. France
- 1.4. Italy
- 1.5. Spain
- 1.6. Netherlands
- 1.7. Belgium
- 1.8. Sweden
- 1.9. Norway
- 1.10. Poland
- 1.11. Denmark

Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
Aspects | Details |
---|---|
Study Period | 2019-2033 |
Base Year | 2024 |
Estimated Year | 2025 |
Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
Growth Rate | CAGR of 7.62% from 2019-2033 |
Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1. 4.; Increasing Investments in Transmission and Distribution Infrastructure
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. 4.; The restriction on SF6 gas usage
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. High Voltage Level Segment Expected to Dominate the Market
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Voltage Level
- 5.1.1. Low Voltage
- 5.1.2. Medium Voltage
- 5.1.3. High Voltage
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End-User
- 5.2.1. Commercial & Residential
- 5.2.2. Power utilities
- 5.2.3. Industrial sector
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Countries
- 5.3.1. Germany
- 5.3.2. France
- 5.3.3. United Kingdom
- 5.3.4. Spain
- 5.3.5. Italy
- 5.3.6. NORDIC
- 5.3.7. Turkery
- 5.3.8. Russia
- 5.3.9. Rest of Europe
- 5.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.4.1. Europe
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Voltage Level
- 6. Germany Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 7. France Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 8. Italy Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 9. United Kingdom Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 10. Netherlands Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 11. Sweden Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 12. Rest of Europe Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 13. Competitive Analysis
- 13.1. Market Share Analysis 2024
- 13.2. Company Profiles
- 13.2.1 Hitachi ABB Ltd
- 13.2.1.1. Overview
- 13.2.1.2. Products
- 13.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.2 Toshiba Corp
- 13.2.2.1. Overview
- 13.2.2.2. Products
- 13.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.3 Mitsubishi Electric Corporation
- 13.2.3.1. Overview
- 13.2.3.2. Products
- 13.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.4 Schneider Electric SE
- 13.2.4.1. Overview
- 13.2.4.2. Products
- 13.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.5 Eaton Corporation PLC
- 13.2.5.1. Overview
- 13.2.5.2. Products
- 13.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.6 Siemens Energy AG
- 13.2.6.1. Overview
- 13.2.6.2. Products
- 13.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.7 Nuventura GmbH
- 13.2.7.1. Overview
- 13.2.7.2. Products
- 13.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.8 General Electric Company
- 13.2.8.1. Overview
- 13.2.8.2. Products
- 13.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 13.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 13.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 13.2.1 Hitachi ABB Ltd
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Share (%) by Company 2024
List of Tables
- Table 1: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume Gigawatt Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Voltage Level 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume Gigawatt Forecast, by Voltage Level 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End-User 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume Gigawatt Forecast, by End-User 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Countries 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume Gigawatt Forecast, by Countries 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume Gigawatt Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume Gigawatt Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: Germany Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: Germany Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: France Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: France Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 17: Italy Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 18: Italy Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 19: United Kingdom Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 20: United Kingdom Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 21: Netherlands Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 22: Netherlands Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 23: Sweden Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 24: Sweden Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 25: Rest of Europe Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 26: Rest of Europe Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 27: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Voltage Level 2019 & 2032
- Table 28: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume Gigawatt Forecast, by Voltage Level 2019 & 2032
- Table 29: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End-User 2019 & 2032
- Table 30: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume Gigawatt Forecast, by End-User 2019 & 2032
- Table 31: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Countries 2019 & 2032
- Table 32: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume Gigawatt Forecast, by Countries 2019 & 2032
- Table 33: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 34: Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume Gigawatt Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 35: United Kingdom Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 36: United Kingdom Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 37: Germany Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 38: Germany Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 39: France Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 40: France Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 41: Italy Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 42: Italy Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 43: Spain Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 44: Spain Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 45: Netherlands Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 46: Netherlands Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 47: Belgium Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 48: Belgium Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 49: Sweden Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 50: Sweden Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 51: Norway Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 52: Norway Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 53: Poland Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 54: Poland Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 55: Denmark Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 56: Denmark Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market Volume (Gigawatt) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately 7.62%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market?
Key companies in the market include Hitachi ABB Ltd, Toshiba Corp, Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, Schneider Electric SE, Eaton Corporation PLC, Siemens Energy AG, Nuventura GmbH, General Electric Company.
3. What are the main segments of the Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market?
The market segments include Voltage Level, End-User, Countries.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD 4.19 Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
4.; Increasing Investments in Transmission and Distribution Infrastructure.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
High Voltage Level Segment Expected to Dominate the Market.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
4.; The restriction on SF6 gas usage.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
October 2023: Nuventura and Iberapa, a Spanish manufacturer of high-voltage (HV) and medium-voltage (MV) substations have announced the signing of a strategic partnership agreement. This exciting collaboration will enable Iberapa to incorporate Nuventura's cutting-edge SF6-free MV GIS into their MV substation offerings.
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 4750, USD 5250, and USD 8750 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million and volume, measured in Gigawatt.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the Europe Gas Insulated Switchgear Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence