Key Insights
The Asia Pacific sports promoter market is poised for significant expansion, projected to reach an estimated USD 8,500 million by 2025 and grow at a robust Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) exceeding 5.00% through 2033. This burgeoning market is fueled by a confluence of escalating fan engagement, increasing disposable incomes across the region, and the growing popularity of major sporting events. Key drivers include the substantial media rights deals being struck for popular sports like cricket, football, and basketball, which captivate vast audiences. Furthermore, the burgeoning merchandising sector, driven by passionate fan bases, and the consistent demand for tickets to live events are critical contributors to market value. Sponsorship revenues are also on an upward trajectory, as brands increasingly recognize the unparalleled reach and impact of sports marketing in connecting with consumers across diverse demographics in Asia Pacific.
The competitive landscape features a dynamic mix of established global players and rapidly emerging regional entities, including Sports Next Asia, Ten Events Asia, GAA Events, Event Planning Group, Rise Worldwide, China Sports Media, Singapore Sports Hub, Endeavor, GAPP SF, and JSW Sports, among others. These companies are actively engaged in developing and promoting a wide array of sports, from established giants like football and cricket to growing segments such as basketball and tennis, and the broader "Other Sports" category. Revenue generation is diversified, with media rights accounting for a substantial portion, followed by merchandising, ticket sales, and sponsorship. The region's diverse economic and cultural landscape presents both opportunities and challenges, with countries like China, India, and Southeast Asian nations demonstrating particularly strong growth potential due to their large populations and increasing affinity for sports.
This comprehensive report delves into the dynamic Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market, offering a 360-degree view of its growth trajectory, key players, and future potential. With a study period spanning from 2019 to 2033 and a base year of 2025, this analysis provides invaluable insights for industry professionals, investors, and stakeholders seeking to navigate this rapidly evolving landscape. We meticulously examine parent and child market dynamics, integrating high-traffic keywords to maximize SEO visibility and engagement across the region. All values are presented in Million units for clarity.

Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Market Dynamics & Structure
The Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market is characterized by a moderately concentrated structure, with a few dominant players holding significant market share. Technological innovation plays a crucial role, particularly in areas like digital broadcasting, fan engagement platforms, and data analytics, driving efficiency and new revenue streams. Regulatory frameworks vary across countries, impacting licensing, broadcasting rights, and sponsorship regulations, necessitating localized strategies. Competitive product substitutes, such as e-sports and other entertainment options, exert pressure, requiring traditional sports promoters to continuously innovate and enhance fan experiences. End-user demographics are diverse, ranging from millennial and Gen Z audiences embracing digital content to older demographics with strong traditional fan bases. Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) trends are on the rise as companies seek to consolidate market presence, acquire new technologies, and expand their geographic reach. For instance, the recent acquisition of smaller regional promoters by larger entities has become a recurring theme.
- Market Concentration: Moderate, with leading players holding substantial market share.
- Technological Innovation Drivers: Digital broadcasting, AI-powered fan engagement, advanced data analytics, virtual and augmented reality experiences.
- Regulatory Frameworks: Evolving and varied across nations, impacting broadcasting rights, event permits, and data privacy.
- Competitive Product Substitutes: E-sports, streaming services, other live entertainment events.
- End-User Demographics: Diverse, with a growing influence of younger, digitally native audiences.
- M&A Trends: Increasing consolidation, strategic alliances, and acquisitions for market expansion and technology integration.
Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Growth Trends & Insights
The Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market is projected for robust growth, driven by increasing disposable incomes, a burgeoning middle class, and a growing passion for sports across the region. The market size is expected to expand significantly from xx Million units in 2025 to an estimated xx Million units by 2033, exhibiting a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of approximately xx%. Adoption rates for digital broadcasting and fan engagement technologies are rapidly increasing, transforming how sports content is consumed and monetized. Technological disruptions, such as the integration of artificial intelligence in performance analysis and personalized fan experiences, are reshaping the industry landscape. Consumer behavior shifts are evident, with a growing demand for interactive content, on-demand streaming, and immersive event experiences. The rise of mobile-first content consumption and the increasing penetration of high-speed internet are key factors influencing these trends. Furthermore, the growing appeal of niche sports and the expansion of women's sports are contributing to a more diverse and inclusive market. The strategic leveraging of data analytics to understand fan preferences and optimize marketing campaigns is also a critical element in driving market penetration and revenue growth. The market's evolution is closely tied to the development of sports infrastructure and the supportive policies enacted by various governments to promote sports tourism and event hosting.

Dominant Regions, Countries, or Segments in Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market
Dominant Segment: Football
Football reigns supreme as the most dominant segment within the Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market, consistently driving significant revenue and fan engagement. Its widespread appeal, coupled with strong league structures and international tournaments, positions it at the forefront of market growth.
- Football's Dominance: The sport commands the largest share of media rights, sponsorship deals, and ticket sales across the region. Major leagues and tournaments attract massive viewership, translating into substantial promotional opportunities.
- Key Drivers in Football Promotion:
- Massive Fan Base: Football boasts the largest and most passionate fan base in Asia Pacific, fueled by global popularity and strong grassroots development.
- Media Rights Value: Broadcast rights for major football leagues and tournaments command premium prices, forming a significant revenue stream for promoters.
- Sponsorship Appeal: Brands consistently invest in football sponsorships due to its extensive reach and brand association potential.
- International Competitions: Tournaments like the AFC Asian Cup and the ongoing FIFA World Cup qualifiers continue to boost interest and commercial opportunities.
- Club Infrastructure: Well-established club academies and infrastructure in countries like Japan, South Korea, and Australia further support the sport's growth.
Dominant Revenue Source: Media Rights
Media rights emerge as the most significant revenue source for the Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market, reflecting the immense value placed on broadcasting sports content across various platforms.
- Media Rights' Financial Power: The sale of broadcasting and digital streaming rights to major sporting events constitutes the largest chunk of revenue for sports promoters. This includes exclusive rights for television, online streaming, and mobile platforms.
- Key Drivers for Media Rights Dominance:
- Increasing Digital Penetration: The proliferation of smartphones and high-speed internet enables wider access to sports content through over-the-top (OTT) platforms.
- Global Appeal of Sports: Major international sporting events generate immense viewership, driving up the value of their media rights.
- Monetization of Content: Promoters are adept at packaging and selling media rights to diverse broadcasters and digital platforms, maximizing their reach and revenue.
- Emergence of New Platforms: The growth of social media and live-streaming platforms offers new avenues for content distribution and monetization.
- Demand for Live Sports: Live sports remain a highly sought-after form of entertainment, providing a captive audience for advertisers and broadcasters.
Dominant Country: China
China stands out as the dominant country driving growth and innovation within the Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market, owing to its massive population, rapidly expanding economy, and increasing investment in sports.
- China's Market Leadership: With its vast consumer base and government support for sports development, China presents unparalleled opportunities for sports promoters.
- Key Drivers for China's Dominance:
- Economic Powerhouse: China's robust economy fuels consumer spending on sports-related activities and entertainment.
- Government Initiatives: The Chinese government has prioritized sports development, leading to increased investment in infrastructure, professional leagues, and grassroots programs.
- Large and Engaged Population: The sheer size of the Chinese population translates into an enormous potential audience for various sports.
- Growing Middle Class: An expanding middle class with higher disposable incomes is increasingly participating in and consuming sports.
- Digital Adoption: High levels of digital adoption and the prevalence of super-apps facilitate innovative fan engagement and content delivery strategies.
- Hosting Major Events: China's capacity to host major international sporting events further boosts its prominence and attracts significant investment.
Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Product Landscape
The product landscape within the Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market is evolving to meet the demands of a digitally connected and experience-seeking audience. Innovations focus on enhancing fan engagement through immersive digital content, personalized experiences, and seamless access to sports. This includes the development of advanced broadcasting technologies, interactive fan platforms, and data-driven analytics for performance optimization and fan segmentation. The integration of augmented and virtual reality (AR/VR) is beginning to offer new dimensions to sports viewing and participation. Furthermore, the promotion of niche sports and the expansion of women's sports offerings represent significant product diversification. The unique selling propositions lie in delivering compelling narratives, fostering community engagement, and leveraging technology to create memorable sports moments that resonate with diverse audiences across the Asia Pacific region.
Key Drivers, Barriers & Challenges in Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market
Key Drivers:
- Economic Growth and Rising Disposable Incomes: Increasing affluence across Asia Pacific fuels consumer spending on sports and entertainment.
- Growing Sports Popularity: A rising interest in various sports, from traditional ones like football and cricket to emerging e-sports, expands the promoter market.
- Technological Advancements: Digital platforms, streaming services, and data analytics enable wider reach and enhanced fan engagement.
- Government Support and Investment: Favorable policies and increased public and private investment in sports infrastructure and events.
- Emergence of New Markets: Untapped potential in developing economies within the region offers significant growth avenues.
Barriers & Challenges:
- Regulatory Discrepancies: Diverse and sometimes restrictive regulations across different countries can hinder market expansion and operational efficiency.
- Intellectual Property Rights Protection: Piracy and unauthorized distribution of content remain a significant concern, impacting revenue streams.
- Competition from Other Entertainment Forms: E-sports, gaming, and other entertainment options vie for consumer attention and spending.
- Infrastructure Gaps: Uneven development of sports facilities and digital infrastructure in certain regions can limit event hosting capabilities.
- Talent Acquisition and Retention: The need for skilled professionals in event management, digital marketing, and sports analytics.
- Economic Volatility and Geopolitical Instability: Regional economic downturns or geopolitical tensions can impact sponsorship deals and audience attendance.
Emerging Opportunities in Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market
Emerging opportunities in the Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market lie in the continued expansion of digital content and fan engagement platforms, particularly within underserved markets and for niche sports. The increasing popularity of women's sports presents a significant untapped market for promotion and sponsorship. Furthermore, the integration of augmented and virtual reality technologies offers innovative ways to enhance viewer experiences and create new revenue streams. The development of localized content tailored to specific cultural nuances within the Asia Pacific region will also be crucial for capturing new audiences. Collaborations with technology providers to develop smart stadiums and fan-centric applications present further avenues for growth.
Growth Accelerators in the Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Industry
Several key catalysts are accelerating the growth of the Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market. Technological breakthroughs in live streaming, data analytics for personalized fan engagement, and the adoption of AI in sports management are significantly enhancing operational efficiency and revenue generation. Strategic partnerships between international promoters and local entities are crucial for navigating diverse market landscapes and leveraging local expertise. Market expansion strategies, including the development of new sporting events and the promotion of emerging sports, are widening the market's scope. The increasing professionalization of sports leagues and the growing appeal of sports tourism are also contributing to sustained growth.
Key Players Shaping the Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Market
- Sports Next Asia
- Ten Events Asia
- GAA Events
- Event Planning Group
- Rise Worldwide
- China Sports Media
- Singapore Sports Hub
- Endeavor
- GAPP SF
- JSW Sports
Notable Milestones in Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Sector
- June 2023: The Dorna WorldSBK Organization forged a strategic alliance with China Sports Media (CSM) to deliver comprehensive live coverage of the Motul FIM Superbike World Championship on Douyin. Douyin, often likened to the Chinese counterpart of TikTok, is operated by its parent company, ByteDance. This partnership significantly expands the reach of motorcycle racing in China.
- May 2023: Lisheng Sports entered into a multi-year partnership with WSC Group, designating Lisheng Group as the promoter for both TCR (Touring Car Racing) China and TCR Asia. This five-year extension ensures a promising and enduring future for both championships as they continue to witness growing interest from drivers and teams in the region. This milestone reinforces the growth of motorsport promotions in Asia.
In-Depth Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Market Outlook
- June 2023: The Dorna WorldSBK Organization forged a strategic alliance with China Sports Media (CSM) to deliver comprehensive live coverage of the Motul FIM Superbike World Championship on Douyin. Douyin, often likened to the Chinese counterpart of TikTok, is operated by its parent company, ByteDance. This partnership significantly expands the reach of motorcycle racing in China.
- May 2023: Lisheng Sports entered into a multi-year partnership with WSC Group, designating Lisheng Group as the promoter for both TCR (Touring Car Racing) China and TCR Asia. This five-year extension ensures a promising and enduring future for both championships as they continue to witness growing interest from drivers and teams in the region. This milestone reinforces the growth of motorsport promotions in Asia.
In-Depth Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Market Outlook
The Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market is poised for exceptional future growth, driven by a convergence of favorable economic conditions, evolving consumer preferences, and rapid technological advancements. The increasing disposable incomes across the region are creating a larger addressable market for sports-related entertainment. Furthermore, the growing digital infrastructure and the widespread adoption of mobile technology are enabling promoters to reach a broader audience through innovative content delivery and fan engagement strategies. Strategic collaborations and investments in emerging sports and niche markets present significant untapped potential. The focus on creating immersive and personalized fan experiences will be paramount in capturing and retaining audiences in this dynamic and competitive landscape. The market's future trajectory indicates a sustained upward trend, offering lucrative opportunities for stakeholders who can effectively adapt to these transformative shifts.
Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Segmentation
-
1. Sports
- 1.1. Football
- 1.2. Cricket
- 1.3. Basketball
- 1.4. Hockey
- 1.5. Tennis
- 1.6. Other Sports
-
2. Revenue Source
- 2.1. Media Rights
- 2.2. Merchandising
- 2.3. Tickets
- 2.4. Sponsorship
Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Segmentation By Geography
-
1. Asia Pacific
- 1.1. China
- 1.2. Japan
- 1.3. South Korea
- 1.4. India
- 1.5. Australia
- 1.6. New Zealand
- 1.7. Indonesia
- 1.8. Malaysia
- 1.9. Singapore
- 1.10. Thailand
- 1.11. Vietnam
- 1.12. Philippines

Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
Aspects | Details |
---|---|
Study Period | 2019-2033 |
Base Year | 2024 |
Estimated Year | 2025 |
Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
Growth Rate | CAGR of > 5.00% from 2019-2033 |
Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1. Increase in Number of Cricket and Football Events in the Region; Digital media and advertisement driving the market
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. Increase in Number of Cricket and Football Events in the Region; Digital media and advertisement driving the market
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. Cricket And Football Events Leading Asia Pacific Market
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Sports
- 5.1.1. Football
- 5.1.2. Cricket
- 5.1.3. Basketball
- 5.1.4. Hockey
- 5.1.5. Tennis
- 5.1.6. Other Sports
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Revenue Source
- 5.2.1. Media Rights
- 5.2.2. Merchandising
- 5.2.3. Tickets
- 5.2.4. Sponsorship
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.3.1. Asia Pacific
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Sports
- 6. Competitive Analysis
- 6.1. Market Share Analysis 2024
- 6.2. Company Profiles
- 6.2.1 Sports Next Asia
- 6.2.1.1. Overview
- 6.2.1.2. Products
- 6.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.2 Ten Events Asia
- 6.2.2.1. Overview
- 6.2.2.2. Products
- 6.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.3 GAA Events
- 6.2.3.1. Overview
- 6.2.3.2. Products
- 6.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.4 Event Planning Group
- 6.2.4.1. Overview
- 6.2.4.2. Products
- 6.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.5 Rise Worldwide
- 6.2.5.1. Overview
- 6.2.5.2. Products
- 6.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.6 China Sports Media
- 6.2.6.1. Overview
- 6.2.6.2. Products
- 6.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.7 Singapore Sports Hub
- 6.2.7.1. Overview
- 6.2.7.2. Products
- 6.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.8 Endeavor
- 6.2.8.1. Overview
- 6.2.8.2. Products
- 6.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.9 GAPP SF
- 6.2.9.1. Overview
- 6.2.9.2. Products
- 6.2.9.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.9.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.9.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.10 JSW Sports**List Not Exhaustive
- 6.2.10.1. Overview
- 6.2.10.2. Products
- 6.2.10.3. SWOT Analysis
- 6.2.10.4. Recent Developments
- 6.2.10.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 6.2.1 Sports Next Asia
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Share (%) by Company 2024
List of Tables
- Table 1: Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Sports 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Revenue Source 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Sports 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Revenue Source 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: China Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: Japan Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: South Korea Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: India Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: Australia Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: New Zealand Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: Indonesia Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: Malaysia Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: Singapore Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 17: Thailand Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 18: Vietnam Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 19: Philippines Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately > 5.00%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market?
Key companies in the market include Sports Next Asia, Ten Events Asia, GAA Events, Event Planning Group, Rise Worldwide, China Sports Media, Singapore Sports Hub, Endeavor, GAPP SF, JSW Sports**List Not Exhaustive.
3. What are the main segments of the Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market?
The market segments include Sports, Revenue Source.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD XX Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
Increase in Number of Cricket and Football Events in the Region; Digital media and advertisement driving the market.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
Cricket And Football Events Leading Asia Pacific Market.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
Increase in Number of Cricket and Football Events in the Region; Digital media and advertisement driving the market.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
June 2023: The Dorna WorldSBK Organization forged a strategic alliance with China Sports Media (CSM) to deliver comprehensive live coverage of the Motul FIM Superbike World Championship on Douyin. Douyin, often likened to the Chinese counterpart of TikTok, is operated by its parent company, ByteDance.
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 3800, USD 4500, and USD 5800 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the Asia Pacific Sports Promoter Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence